Chapter 01
History
Ancient India
Indus Valley Civilization
- Dates: 3300–1300 BCE (Mature phase: 2600–1900 BCE)
- Key sites: Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-daro (Sindh), Lothal (Gujarat — first dockyard), Dholavira (Gujarat — largest in India), Kalibangan (Rajasthan — fire altars)
- Characteristics: Town planning, grid layout, drainage system, standardised weights, no iron use
- Decline theories: Climate change / flood / Aryan invasion (Aryan theory disputed)
Vedic Period
| Period | Time | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Early Vedic (Rigvedic) | 1500–1000 BCE | Pastoral, nomadic, Rigveda composed, Sapta Sindhu region |
| Later Vedic | 1000–600 BCE | Agricultural, varna system rigid, Sama, Yajur, Atharva Vedas, Mahajanapadas |
Mauryan Empire
321 BCE
Chandragupta Maurya founds empire
Defeated Dhana Nanda (last Nanda king) with Chanakya's guidance. Capital: Pataliputra.
305 BCE
Defeat of Seleucus Nicator
Chandragupta defeats Alexander's general. Megasthenes sent as ambassador — wrote Indica.
273–232 BCE
Ashoka the Great
Kalinga war (261 BCE) transformed him. Spread Buddhism. Erected pillars, rock edicts (Brahmi script). Dhamma policy.
185 BCE
End of Maurya Empire
Brihadratha killed by Pushyamitra Shunga (general). Shunga dynasty begins.
Gupta Empire — Golden Age
- Chandragupta I (320–335 CE) — Founded empire, married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi
- Samudragupta (335–375 CE) — "Napoleon of India", Allahabad Pillar inscription by Harisena
- Chandragupta II / Vikramaditya (375–415 CE) — Conquered Sakas, Fa-Hien visited, Nine Gems (Navratna) including Kalidasa
- Achievements: Aryabhata (zero, Earth rotation), Varahamihira, iron pillar (Delhi — no rust)
Medieval India
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
| Dynasty | Period | Key Rulers | Notable |
|---|---|---|---|
| Slave (Mamluk) | 1206–1290 | Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia Sultana, Balban | Qutb Minar, first woman ruler |
| Khilji | 1290–1320 | Alauddin Khilji | Market reforms, price control, repelled Mongols, Malik Kafur southern expedition |
| Tughlaq | 1320–1414 | Ghiyasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firoz Shah | Capital shifted to Daulatabad, token currency, Ibn Battuta visited |
| Sayyid | 1414–1451 | Khizr Khan | Weak dynasty, Timur's aftermath |
| Lodi | 1451–1526 | Ibrahim Lodi | Ended at 1st Battle of Panipat (1526) |
Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
| Emperor | Reign | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | 1526–1530 | 1st Battle of Panipat (1526) vs Ibrahim Lodi. Introduced artillery. Wrote Baburnama. |
| Humayun | 1530–1556 | Defeated by Sher Shah Suri, went into exile in Persia. Reconquered India 1555. |
| Akbar | 1556–1605 | 2nd Battle of Panipat (1556). Din-i-Ilahi, Navratnas (Birbal, Tansen, Todar Mal, Abul Fazl etc.), Fatehpur Sikri, Mansabdari system |
| Jahangir | 1605–1627 | Nur Jahan influence. Thomas Roe (British envoy). Known for justice chain. |
| Shah Jahan | 1627–1658 | Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid. "Golden Age" of Mughal architecture. |
| Aurangzeb | 1658–1707 | Expanded empire to max, Jaziya reimposed, banned music. Decline after death. |
Modern India & Freedom Struggle
Important Events Timeline
1757
Battle of Plassey
Clive vs Siraj-ud-Daulah. British victory, foundation of British rule.
1764
Battle of Buxar
British vs combined Nawabs. Treaty of Allahabad 1765 — Diwani rights to EIC.
1857
Revolt of 1857 — First War of Independence
Mangal Pandey spark. Centres: Meerut, Delhi (Bahadur Shah Zafar), Kanpur (Nana Sahib), Jhansi (Lakshmi Bai), Lucknow (Begum Hazrat Mahal). Crushed; Crown rule begins.
1885
INC Founded
A.O. Hume, Dadabhai Naoroji, Dinshaw Wacha. First session — Bombay.
1905
Partition of Bengal
Lord Curzon. Swadeshi Movement launched. Annulled 1911.
1919
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
April 13. General Dyer. Rabindranath Tagore renounced knighthood.
1920–22
Non-Cooperation Movement
Gandhi. Withdrawn after Chauri Chaura (1922) violence.
1930
Civil Disobedience / Dandi March
March 12 – April 5. Gandhi walked 240 miles to break Salt Law.
1942
Quit India Movement
August 8. "Do or Die". Gandhi, Nehru, Patel arrested. Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted flag.
1947
Independence
August 15. Partition — India and Pakistan. Mountbatten last Viceroy.
Important Social Reform Movements
| Reformer | Movement / Work | Period |
|---|---|---|
| Raja Ram Mohan Roy | Brahmo Samaj (1828), banned Sati (1829) | 1772–1833 |
| Dayananda Saraswati | Arya Samaj (1875), Shuddhi movement | 1824–1883 |
| Swami Vivekananda | Ramakrishna Mission (1897), Chicago speech 1893 | 1863–1902 |
| Jyotirao Phule | Satyashodhak Samaj (1873), women/lower caste education | 1827–1890 |
| B.R. Ambedkar | Drafted Constitution, anti-caste, Mahad Satyagraha | 1891–1956 |
Practice — History
Which Mughal emperor introduced the Mansabdari system?Direct fact question
Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system — a grading system for military/civil officers based on rank (mansab).
The Dandi March of 1930 was launched to protest against?
Gandhi marched 240 miles to Dandi to make salt from seawater, defying the British Salt Law / Salt Tax.
Chapter 02
Geography
Physical Geography of India
Major Physiographic Divisions
The Himalayas
- Greater Himalayas (Himadri) — avg 6000m
- Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) — Shimla, Mussoorie
- Outer Himalayas (Shivalik) — foothills
- Highest peak in India: Kangchenjunga (8586m)
Northern Plains
- Formed by Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra rivers
- Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar, Khadar zones
- Most fertile agricultural land
Peninsular Plateau
- Oldest landmass (Gondwana)
- Deccan Plateau: basalt/lava soil (regur)
- Western Ghats (Sahyadri): continuous range
- Eastern Ghats: discontinuous, lower
Coastal Plains
- Western: narrower, submerged coast
- Eastern: wider, emergent coast
- Chilika Lake (Odisha) — largest coastal lagoon
Rivers of India
| River | Origin | Flows into | Tributaries / Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ganga | Gangotri glacier | Bay of Bengal | Yamuna, Son, Ghaghra, Kosi. Longest river in India (2525 km) |
| Indus | Tibet (near Mansarovar) | Arabian Sea | Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej. Longest river of the subcontinent |
| Brahmaputra | Chemayungdung glacier (Tibet — called Tsangpo) | Bay of Bengal | Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri. World's widest river valley |
| Godavari | Nasik (Western Ghats) | Bay of Bengal | "Dakshin Ganga" — longest peninsular river (1465 km) |
| Krishna | Mahabaleshwar | Bay of Bengal | Tungabhadra, Bhima |
| Narmada | Amarkantak Plateau | Arabian Sea | Flows through rift valley (westward). Marble Rocks at Jabalpur. |
| Tapti (Tapi) | Satpura range (Betul, MP) | Arabian Sea | Flows westward through rift valley like Narmada |
Climate of India
India has a monsoon type of climate with 4 seasons: Winter (Dec–Feb), Pre-monsoon/Summer (Mar–May), Southwest Monsoon (Jun–Sep), Retreating Monsoon/Post-monsoon (Oct–Nov)
- Mawsynram (Meghalaya) — wettest place in the world
- Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) — driest place in India
- Southwest monsoon enters India via Kerala (around June 1)
- Bay of Bengal branch — hits NE India first
- Arabian Sea branch — hits Western Ghats and Konkan coast
Soil Types
| Soil Type | Where Found | Crops |
|---|---|---|
| Alluvial | Indo-Gangetic plains, river deltas | Wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton |
| Black (Regur) | Deccan Plateau (Maharashtra, MP) | Cotton — holds moisture |
| Red & Yellow | Eastern Deccan (AP, Odisha, Tamil Nadu) | Rice, wheat, millet |
| Laterite | Western & Eastern Ghats, NE India | Tea, coffee, cashew |
| Arid / Desert | Rajasthan, Punjab & Haryana dry areas | Bajra, jowar (after irrigation) |
| Forest/Mountain | Himalayan region | Tea, coffee, spices, tropical fruits |
Practice — Geography
Which is the longest river in Peninsular India?Frequently asked
Godavari (1465 km) is the longest peninsular river, called "Dakshin Ganga".
Chapter 03
Indian Polity
The Constitution
Adopted: November 26, 1949 (Constitution Day). Enforced: January 26, 1950.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar — Chairman of Drafting Committee. Drafting took 2 years 11 months 18 days.
Original Constitution
395 Articles, 8 Schedules, 22 Parts
Current Constitution
~470 Articles, 12 Schedules, 25 Parts (post-amendments)
Preamble
Added "Secular" and "Socialist" by 42nd Amendment (1976)
Fundamental Rights (Part III, Articles 12–35)
| Right | Articles | Key Points |
|---|---|---|
| Right to Equality | 14–18 | Equality before law, no discrimination, abolish untouchability (Art 17) |
| Right to Freedom | 19–22 | 6 freedoms (speech, assembly, movement etc.), protection against arrest |
| Right against Exploitation | 23–24 | No trafficking, forced labour, no child labour below 14 |
| Freedom of Religion | 25–28 | Freedom of conscience, religion, manage religious affairs |
| Cultural & Educational | 29–30 | Minorities can establish and administer educational institutions |
| Right to Constitutional Remedies | 32 | "Heart and Soul of Constitution" (Ambedkar). 5 writs. |
5 Writs: Habeas Corpus (produce the body), Mandamus (we command), Prohibition (stop inferior court), Certiorari (quash inferior court order), Quo Warranto (by what authority)
Important Articles to Remember
| Article | Subject |
|---|---|
| Art 1 | India = Union of States (not federation) |
| Art 13 | Laws inconsistent with FRs = void |
| Art 21 | Right to Life and Personal Liberty (most expanded by judiciary) |
| Art 32 | Right to Constitutional Remedies (SC) |
| Art 44 | Uniform Civil Code (DPSP) |
| Art 51A | Fundamental Duties (added by 42nd Amendment) |
| Art 72 | Presidential pardoning power |
| Art 110 | Money Bill definition |
| Art 123 | Presidential Ordinance making power |
| Art 226 | High Court writ jurisdiction |
| Art 280 | Finance Commission |
| Art 324 | Election Commission |
| Art 356 | President's Rule in states |
| Art 368 | Amendment procedure |
Constitutional Amendments — SSC Favourites
| Amendment | Year | Key Change |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | 1951 | Added 9th Schedule (land reform laws protection) |
| 42nd | 1976 | "Mini Constitution" — added Socialist, Secular, Integrity to Preamble; Fundamental Duties (Art 51A) |
| 44th | 1978 | Restored Art 20 & 21 as non-suspendable, removed Right to Property from FRs (Art 300A) |
| 52nd | 1985 | Anti-defection law (10th Schedule) |
| 61st | 1989 | Voting age 21 → 18 |
| 73rd | 1992 | Panchayati Raj (11th Schedule, 29 subjects) |
| 74th | 1992 | Municipalities / Urban Local Bodies (12th Schedule) |
| 86th | 2002 | Right to Education (Art 21A), free & compulsory for 6–14 age |
| 101st | 2016 | GST introduced |
Practice — Polity
Which article of the Indian Constitution deals with the Right to Constitutional Remedies?Very frequently asked
Article 32 — Right to Constitutional Remedies (SC). Called "Heart and Soul of Constitution" by Ambedkar. Art 226 is for High Courts.
The words "Socialist" and "Secular" were added to the Preamble by which amendment?
42nd Amendment (1976) — added Socialist, Secular, Integrity. Also added Fundamental Duties. Called "Mini Constitution".
Chapter 04
Indian Economy
Key Concepts
GDP
Gross Domestic Product — total monetary value of goods and services produced within a country in a year.
GNP
GDP + Net income from abroad. GNP = GDP + (earnings by residents abroad − earnings by foreigners in India)
NNP
GNP − Depreciation. "Net National Product" = National Income (at market price)
Per Capita Income
National Income / Population. Indicator of living standard.
Five Year Plans → NITI Aayog
Planning Commission (1950) replaced by NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India) on January 1, 2015. First Chairman: PM Narendra Modi. CEO: Amitabh Kant (initially).
Important Economic Bodies
| Body | Head / HQ | Role |
|---|---|---|
| RBI | Governor / Mumbai | Monetary policy, currency, banking regulator. Est. 1935, nationalised 1949. |
| SEBI | Chairman / Mumbai | Stock market regulator. Est. 1988, statutory body 1992. |
| NABARD | Chairman / Mumbai | Agricultural & rural development credit. Est. 1982. |
| SIDBI | CMD / Lucknow | Small Industries Development Bank. Est. 1990. |
| EXIM Bank | MD / Mumbai | Export-Import financing. Est. 1982. |
| GST Council | Finance Minister (chair) | GST rates and policy. 101st Amendment 2016. |
Budget Terms
Revenue Budget: Day-to-day govt income (taxes) and expenditure (salaries, subsidies). Revenue deficit = Revenue expenditure − Revenue receipts.
Capital Budget: Long-term assets, borrowings, repayments. Fiscal Deficit = Total expenditure − Total receipts (excl. borrowings). Primary Deficit = Fiscal Deficit − Interest payments.
- Direct Tax: Paid directly by person who bears it. Income tax, corporate tax, wealth tax.
- Indirect Tax: Collected by intermediary, passed to buyer. GST (replaced VAT, excise, service tax).
- Progressive tax: Higher income → higher rate (income tax slabs).
- Regressive tax: Same rate regardless of income (most indirect taxes).
Chapter 05
General Science
Physics — Key Topics
Laws of Motion (Newton)
- 1st Law (Inertia): Body remains at rest or uniform motion unless external force acts
- 2nd Law: F = ma (Force = mass × acceleration)
- 3rd Law: Every action has equal and opposite reaction
Momentum = mass × velocity. Conservation of momentum: Total momentum before = Total momentum after (no external force)
Important Physics Facts for SSC
| Concept | Value / Explanation |
|---|---|
| Speed of light | 3 × 10⁸ m/s (in vacuum) |
| Speed of sound in air | 343 m/s at 20°C |
| Acceleration due to gravity (g) | 9.8 m/s² (approx 10) |
| Atmospheric pressure | 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 760 mmHg |
| Ultrasonic frequency | Above 20,000 Hz |
| Infrasonic frequency | Below 20 Hz |
| SI unit of force | Newton (N) |
| SI unit of power | Watt (W) = J/s |
| SI unit of energy | Joule (J) |
| SI unit of pressure | Pascal (Pa) |
Light — Key Points
- Reflection laws: angle of incidence = angle of reflection
- Refraction: bends toward normal when entering denser medium
- Total Internal Reflection: Basis of optical fiber; occurs above critical angle in denser medium
- Rainbow: dispersion + internal reflection in water droplets
- Human eye defects: Myopia (concave lens), Hypermetropia (convex), Astigmatism (cylindrical)
Chemistry — Key Topics
Elements & Compounds
| Substance | Chemical formula | Common name |
|---|---|---|
| Water | H₂O | — |
| Common salt | NaCl | Sodium chloride |
| Baking soda | NaHCO₃ | Sodium bicarbonate |
| Washing soda | Na₂CO₃·10H₂O | Sodium carbonate |
| Plaster of Paris | CaSO₄·½H₂O | Calcium sulphate hemihydrate |
| Bleaching powder | Ca(OCl)Cl | Calcium oxychloride |
| Caustic soda | NaOH | Sodium hydroxide |
| Caustic potash | KOH | Potassium hydroxide |
| Vinegar | CH₃COOH (5% solution) | Acetic acid |
| Marble/Limestone | CaCO₃ | Calcium carbonate |
Biology — Key Topics
Human Body Systems
Digestive System
- Saliva — amylase (starch → sugar)
- Stomach — pepsin (protein digestion), HCl
- Small intestine — main absorption site
- Liver — bile production, largest gland
Circulatory System
- Heart: 4 chambers (2 atria, 2 ventricles)
- RBC — no nucleus, 120-day lifespan
- WBC — immune defence, nucleus present
- Platelets — clotting. Blood type: A, B, AB, O
- AB = universal recipient; O = universal donor
Vitamins
- A — Night blindness (retinol)
- B₁ — Beriberi (thiamine)
- B₁₂ — Pernicious anaemia (cobalamin)
- C — Scurvy (ascorbic acid)
- D — Rickets (calciferol) — from sunlight
- K — Blood clotting (phylloquinone)
Diseases & Pathogens
- Malaria — Plasmodium (protozoa), Anopheles mosquito
- Dengue — Aedes mosquito, virus
- TB — Mycobacterium tuberculosis (bacteria)
- Cholera — Vibrio cholerae (bacteria)
- Rabies — Rhabdovirus (virus)
Practice — Science
Deficiency of Vitamin C causes which disease?Direct fact
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) deficiency → Scurvy (bleeding gums, weak blood vessels)
Chapter 06
Environment & Ecology
Ecology Basics
Ecosystem
Biotic (living) + Abiotic (non-living) components interacting as a system.
Food Chain
Producer → Primary consumer → Secondary → Tertiary. Energy: 10% rule (only 10% passes to next level).
Biosphere Reserves
18 in India. UNESCO recognises 12. Nilgiri (1986) — first BR. Sundarbans, Nanda Devi, Gulf of Mannar notable.
Biodiversity Hotspots
4 in India: Western Ghats + Sri Lanka, Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Sundaland.
Environmental Issues & Acts
| Act / Agreement | Year | About |
|---|---|---|
| Environment Protection Act | 1986 | Umbrella legislation; empowers Central Govt. After Bhopal gas tragedy. |
| Forest Conservation Act | 1980 | Prevents diversion of forest land for non-forest use without prior approval. |
| Wildlife Protection Act | 1972 | Protected species lists, bans hunting. Amended multiple times. |
| Kyoto Protocol | 1997 | GHG reduction targets for developed countries. India not included in targets. |
| Paris Agreement | 2015 | Limit global temp rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial. NDCs by all countries. |
| Montreal Protocol | 1987 | Phase out ozone-depleting substances (CFCs). Most successful env. treaty. |
Global Warming & Greenhouse Gases
Main greenhouse gases: CO₂ (highest in terms of contribution), CH₄ (methane — 25x more potent), N₂O, Ozone, CFCs. CO₂ most abundant GHG but CH₄ more potent per molecule.
- Ozone layer: Stratosphere. Absorbs UV-B radiation.
- Ozone depleting substances: CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), HCFCs, Halons
- Acid rain: caused by SO₂ and NO₂ combining with rainwater → H₂SO₄, HNO₃
- Eutrophication: excess nutrients (nitrates, phosphates) → algal bloom → O₂ depletion